Background: Optimizations that Pydrofoil does#

On this page we want to give a brief introduction to some of the optimizations that Pydrofoil performs, together with some links to further reading about them.

Dynamic binary translation / just-in-time compilation#

The Sail-generated emulator is an interpreter. Given a RISC-V binary it fetches and decodes instructions, and every time it has to do so it will read from emulated RAM, then re-analyze the bitpatterns of the involved instructions. This is costly for guest instructions that are emulated again and again, for example because they run as part of a loop in the guest program.

To optimize this overhead away, Pydrofoil uses dynamic binary translation. The idea of binary translation is to translate the guest RISC-V instructions to host machine instructions. This translation needs to be done at runtime (i.e. while the emulator is running the guest program) in order to be able support self-modifying code and code that is dynamically emitted at runtime.

Dynamic binary translation speeds up emulation because it removes the interpretation overhead and the repeated decoding of the executed guest instructions. Dynamic binary translation in Pydrofoil is not applied to all the executed instructions, but only those that are executed often enough. To identify those, Pydrofoil does runtime profiling to find the commonly executed loops in the guest programs. Once a threshold is reached for such a loop, the loop is translated to host machine code (typically x86 or ARM).

During the translation process various typical compiler optimizations are applied, even across the boundaries of the individual guest instructions. Examples are constant folding, store-to-load and load-to-load forwarding.

Further Reading:

Meta-Tracing#

One additional complexity that Pydrofoil has compared to other dynamic binary translators is the fact that it is always possible to add new instructions to the Sail ISA model (for example because a new RISC-V extension comes out or becomes added to the model). Therefore the technique of “meta-tracing” is used in order to automatically support dynamic binary translation of all the RISC-V instructions that are added to the Sail model. Meta-tracing was invented in the DynamoRIO project and developed further by PyPy. Pydrofoil re-uses the PyPy/RPython meta-JIT compiler infrastructure in order to save implementation effort.

More efficient representation for integers and bitvectors#

Another optimization of Pydrofoil compared to the standard Sail-generated emulator are better implementations for the bitvector and integer types that Sail supports. Integers in Sail have arbitrary precision, and bitvector types can be parametrized with the bitwidth, which might or might not be a constant in the Sail source code.

How the Sail emulator does it#

The Sail compiler will try to infer the maximum number of bits needed for all the integers used in the Sail specification, and similarly will try to identify the precise bitwidth of all bitvector types (or at least an upper bound on their size). This analysis uses the Z3 model checker. If this analysis succeeds, and the number of bits can be inferred for an integer or bitvector type, the Sail compiler will pick an efficient representation of the involved variables when generating C code for the emulator. For integers that have inferred sizes that fit a machine word, they can simply be represented as machine words, and similarly for bitvectors.

However, the analysis of the bitwidths can also fail, in which case neither a precise nor maximum bitwidth is known. In that case the Sail compiler will represent the corresponding variables in the C source using the arbitrary integer implementation of the GNU multi precision library (GMP). In particular this means that every such integer and bitvector becomes a dynamically allocated object on the heap, which needs to be allocated with malloc and free. This constant allocation and de-allocation of the integer objects costs a lot of performance.

What Pydrofoil does#

Pydrofoil represents integers and bitvectors of unknown size differently. Instead of always using a heap-allocated representation, Pydrofoil will dynamically pick between two different representations at runtime, individually for each created integer or bitvector:

  • a small representation for integers/bitvectors that fit into a machine word

  • a generic representation for those that don’t, which uses a heap-allocated big integer implementation like in Sail

This dynamic choice of representation is useful because in practice most integer values/bitvectors in a Sail model fit into a machine word, even if statically determining this does not work. By having this dynamic representation, Pydrofoil saves a lot of allocations and deallocations that the Sail-generated emulators do.

This implementation approach for potentially arbitrarily sized integers is standard in the implementation of dynamically typed programming languages and goes back to early Lisp implementations.